APA Style

APA Style 



   

  

  

'''1. APA Formatting and Style ''' ====APA formatting is the standard method of documentation used by the American Psychological Association. Although followed by writers in a variety of fields, it is geared towards the social and behavioral sciences. Similar to MLA (used mostly for literature and languages) and Chicago style (prevalent in the humanities, more generally), APA provides a disciplinary standard to facilitate clear communication and easy reference in the field. In 1929, the "Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association" (or APA) began life as a 7-page article. That brief tract on usage guidelines has been evolving ever since (see Resources). ====

1.2 What is APA Style?
APA Style establishes standards of written communication concerning:


 * the organization of content
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">writing style
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">citing references
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">and how to prepare a manuscript for publication in certain disciplines.

1.3 Why Use APA ?
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Aside from simplifying the work of editors by having everyone use the same format for a given publication, using APA Style makes it easier for readers to understand a text by providing a familiar structure they can follow. Abiding by APA's standards as a writer will allow you to:


 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Provide readers with cues they can use to follow your ideas more efficiently and to locate information of interest to them
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Allow readers to focus more on your ideas by not distracting them with unfamiliar formatting
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Establish your credibility or ethos in the field by demonstrating an awareness of your audience and their needs as fellow researchers

1.3 Who Should Use APA?
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">APA Style describes rules for the preparation of manuscripts for writers and students in:

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Before you adopt this style for your paper, you should check to see what citation style your discipline uses in its journals and for student research. If APA Style is appropriate for your writing project, then use this workshop to learn more about APA and how to follow its rules correctly in your own work.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Social Sciences, such as Psychology, Linguistics, Sociology, Economics, and Criminology
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Business
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Nursing

2. APA Formatting and Writing Style
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">You should start by becoming familiar with the general formatting requirements of APA Style, as well as the different standards for writing that are expected among APA writers. Because APA is different than other writing styles, you should pay attention to everything from general paper layout to word choice. The following pages will introduce you to some of these basic requirements of APA Style to get you started in the right direction.

2.1 General APA Format

 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Covers the basic page layout for a typical APA manuscript, including everything from margin widths to the use of headings and visuals
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Includes a general list of the basic components of an APA paper: title page, abstract, and reference page

2.2 General APA Guidelines
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Your essay should be typed, double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5" x 11") with 1" margins on all sides. You should use a clear font that is highly readable. APA recommends using 12 pt. Times New Roman font.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Include a <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">page header   (also known as the "<span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">running head ") at the top of every page. To create a <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">page header/running head, insert page numbers flush right. Then type "TITLE OF YOUR PAPER" in the header flush left using all capital letters. The <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">running head is a shortened version of your paper's title and cannot exceed 50 characters including spacing and punctuation.

2.3 Major Paper Sections
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Your essay should include <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">four major sections: the <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Title Page, <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Abstract , <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Main Body , and <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">References.

2.3.1 Title Page
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">The title page should contain the <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">title of the paper, the <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">author's name, and the <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">institutional affiliation. Include the page header (described above) flush left with the page number flush right at the top of the page. Please note that on the title page, your page header/running head should look like this:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Running head: TITLE OF YOUR PAPER

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Pages after the title page should have a running head that looks like this:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:14.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">2.3.1.1 TITLE OF YOUR PAPER 

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">After consulting with publication specialists at the APA, OWL staff learned that the APA 6th edition, first printing sample papers have <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">incorrect examples of Running heads on pages after the title page. This <span style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-theme-font:major-fareast; color:windowtext">link<span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> will take you to the APA site where you can find a complete list of all the errors in the APA's 6th edition style guide.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Type your <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">title in upper and lowercase letters centered in the upper half of the page. APA recommends that your title be no more than 12 words in length and that it should not contain abbreviations or words that serve no purpose. Your title may take up one or two lines. All text on the title page, and throughout your paper, should be double-spaced.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Beneath the title, type the <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">author's name : first name, middle initial(s), and last name. Do not use titles (Dr.) or degrees (Ph.D.).

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Beneath the author's name, type the <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">institutional affiliation, which should indicate the location where the author(s) conducted the research.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-theme-font:major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Image Caption: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">APA Title Page

2.3.2 Abstract
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Begin a new page. Your abstract page should already include the <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">page header (described above). On the first line of the abstract page, center the word “Abstract” (no bold, formatting, italics, underlining, or quotation marks).

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Beginning with the next line, write a concise summary of the key points of your research. (Do not indent.) Your abstract should contain at least your research topic, research questions, participants, methods, results, data analysis, and conclusions. You may also include possible implications of your research and future work you see connected with your findings. Your abstract should be a single paragraph double-spaced. Your abstract should be between 150 and 250 words.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">You may also want to list keywords from your paper in your abstract. To do this, indent as you would if you were starting a new paragraph, type <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font:major-fareast;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Keywords: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> (italicized), and then list your keywords. Listing your keywords will help researchers find your work in databases.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-theme-font:major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Image Caption: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">APA Abstract Page

3. How to Cite the Purdue OWL in APA
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">3.1 Individual Resources

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Contributors' names and the last edited date can be found in the orange boxes at the top of every page on the OWL.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Contributors' names (Last edited date). Title of resource. Retrieved from http://Web address for OWL resource

<span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> Angeli, E., Wagner, J., Lawrick, E., Moore, K., Anderson, M., Soderlund, L., & Brizee, A. (2010, May 5). General format. Retrieved from <span style="font-size:8.0pt; font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin">http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

4. Types of APA Papers
<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Describes the two most common types of APA papers: the literature review and the experimental report
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Outlines what sections must be included in each type of paper, from introductions to a methods section

4.1 Types of APA Papers
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">There are two common types of papers written in fields using APA Style: the literature review and the experimental report. Each has unique requirements concerning the sections that must be included in the paper.

4.2 Literature Review
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">A literature review is a summary of what the scientific literature says about your specific topic or question. Often student research in APA fields falls into this category. Your professor might ask you to write this kind of paper to demonstrate your familiarity with work in the field pertinent to the research you hope to conduct.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">A literature review typically contains the following sections:

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Some instructors may also want you to write an abstract for a literature review, so be sure to check with them when given an assignment. Also, the length of a literature review and the required number of sources will vary based on course and instructor preferences.
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">title page
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">introduction section
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">list of references

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">NOTE: <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> A literature review and an annotated bibliography are <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">not synonymous. If you are asked to write an annotated bibliography, you should consult the <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Publication Manual for the APA Format for Annotated Bibliographies.

4.3 Experimental Report
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">In many of the social sciences, you will be asked to design and conduct your own experimental research. If so, you will need to write up your paper using a structure that is more complex than that used for just a literature review. We have a complete resource devoted to writing an experimental report in the field of psychology here.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">This structure follows the scientific method, but it also makes your paper easier to follow by providing those familiar cues that help your reader efficiently scan your information for:

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Thus an experimental report typically includes the following sections:
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">why the topic is important (covered in your introduction)
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">what the problem is (also covered in your introduction)
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">what you did to try to solve the problem (covered in your methods section)
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">what you found (covered in your results section)
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">what you think your findings mean (covered in your discussion section)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Make sure to check the guidelines for your assignment or any guidelines that have been given to you by an editor of a journal before you submit a manuscript containing the sections listed above.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">title page
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">abstract
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">introduction
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">method
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">results
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">discussion
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">references
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">appendices(if necessary)
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">tables and/or figures (if necessary)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">As with the literature review, the length of this report may vary by course or by journal, but most often it will be determined by the scope of the research conducted.

4.4 Other Papers
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If you are writing a paper that fits neither of these categories, follow the guidelines about <span style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-theme-font:major-fareast; color:windowtext">General Format<span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">, consult your instructor, or look up advice in the Publication Manual.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">When submitting a manuscript to a journal, make sure you follow the guidelines described in the submission policies of that publication, and include as many sections as you think are applicable to presenting your material. Remember to keep your audience in mind as you are making this decision. If certain information is particularly pertinent for conveying your research, then ensure that there is a section of your paper that adequately addresses that information.

5. APA Stylistics: Basics
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Writing in APA is more than simply learning the formula for citations or following a certain page layout. APA also includes the stylistics of your writing, from point of view to word choice.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Describes three basic areas of stylistic concerns when writing in an APA field: point of view, clarity/conciseness, and word choice
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Explains how poetic language and devices should be avoided in APA reviews and reports
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Suggestions and examples are given for each stylistic issue

5.1 Point of View and Voice
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">When writing in APA Style, you can use the first person point of view when discussing your research steps ("I studied ...") and when referring to yourself and your co-authors ("We examined the literature ..."). Use first person to discuss research steps rather than anthropomorphising the work. For example, a study cannot "control" or "interpret"; you and your co-authors, however, can.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">In general, you should foreground the research and not the researchers ("The results indicate ... "). Avoid using the editorial "we"; if you use "we" in your writing, be sure that "we" refers to you and your fellow researchers.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">It is a common misconception that foregrounding the research requires using the passive voice ("Experiments have been conducted ..."). This is inaccurate. Rather, you would use pronouns in place of "experiments" ("We conducted experiments ...").

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">APA Style encourages using the active voice ("We interpreted the results ..."). The active voice is particularly important in experimental reports, where the subject performing the action should be clearly identified (e.g. "We interviewed ..." vs. "The participants responded ...").

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Consult the OWL handout for more on the distinction between <span style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-theme-font:major-fareast; color:windowtext">passive and active voice<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">.

5.2 Clarity and Conciseness
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Clarity and conciseness in writing are important when conveying research in APA Style. You don't want to misrepresent the details of a study or confuse your readers with wordiness or unnecessarily complex sentences.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">For clarity, be specific rather than vague in descriptions and explanations. Unpack details accurately to provide adequate information to your readers so they can follow the development of your study.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Example: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> "It was predicted that marital conflict would predict behavior problems in school-aged children."

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">To clarify this vague hypothesis, use parallel structure to outline specific ideas:

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">"The first hypothesis stated that marital conflict would predict behavior problems in school-aged children. The second hypothesis stated that the effect would be stronger for girls than for boys. The third hypothesis stated that older girls would be more affected by marital conflict than younger girls."

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">To be more concise, particularly in introductory material or abstracts, you should pare out unnecessary words and condense information when you can (see the OWL handout on <span style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-theme-font:major-fareast; color:windowtext">Conciseness<span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> in academic writing for suggestions).

Conciseness
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">The goal of concise writing is to use the most effective words. Concise writing does not always have the fewest words, but it always uses the strongest ones. Writers often fill sentences with weak or unnecessary words that can be deleted or replaced. Words and phrases should be deliberately chosen for the work they are doing. Like bad employees, words that don't accomplish enough should be fired. When only the most effective words remain, writing will be far more concise and readable.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">This resource contains general conciseness tips followed by very specific strategies for pruning sentences.

1. Replace several vague words with more powerful and specific words.
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Often, writers use several small and ambiguous words to express a concept, wasting energy expressing ideas better relayed through fewer specific words. As a general rule, more specific words lead to more concise writing. Because of the variety of nouns, verbs, and adjectives, most things have a closely corresponding description. Brainstorming or searching a thesaurus can lead to the word best suited for a specific instance. Notice that the examples below actually convey more as they drop in word count.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wordy <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: The politician talked about several of the merits of after-school programs in his speech (14 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Concise <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: The politician touted after-school programs in his speech. (8 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wordy <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Suzie believed but could not confirm that Billy had feelings of affection for her. (14 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Concise <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Suzie assumed that Billy adored her. (6 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wordy <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Our website has made available many of the things you can use for making a decision on the best dentist. (20 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Concise <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Our website presents criteria for determining the best dentist. (9 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wordy <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Working as a pupil under someone who develops photos was an experience that really helped me learn a lot. (20 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Concise <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Working as a photo technician's apprentice was an educational experience. (10 words)

2. Interrogate every word in a sentence
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Check every word to make sure that it is providing something important and unique to a sentence. If words are dead weight, they can be deleted or replaced. Other sections in this handout cover this concept more specifically, but there are some general examples below containing sentences with words that could be cut.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wordy <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: The teacher demonstrated some of the various ways and methods for cutting words from my essay that I had written for class. (22 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Concise <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: The teacher demonstrated methods for cutting words from my essay. (10 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wordy <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Eric Clapton and Steve Winwood formed a new band of musicians together in 1969, giving it the ironic name of Blind Faith because early speculation that was spreading everywhere about the band suggested that the new musical group would be good enough to rival the earlier bands that both men had been in, Cream and Traffic, which people had really liked and had been very popular. (66 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Concise <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Eric Clapton and Steve Winwood formed a new band in 1969, ironically naming it Blind Faith because speculation suggested that the group would rival the musicians’ previous popular bands, Cream and Traffic. (32 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wordy <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Many have made the wise observation that when a stone is in motion rolling down a hill or incline that that moving stone is not as likely to be covered all over with the kind of thick green moss that grows on stationary unmoving things and becomes a nuisance and suggests that those things haven’t moved in a long time and probably won’t move any time soon. (67 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Concise <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: A rolling stone gathers no moss. (6 words)

3. Combine Sentences.
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Some information does not require a full sentence, and can easily be inserted into another sentence without losing any of its value. To get more strategies for sentence combining, see the handout on Sentence Variety.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wordy <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Ludwig's castles are an astounding marriage of beauty and madness. By his death, he had commissioned three castles. (18 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Concise <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Ludwig's three castles are an astounding marriage of beauty and madness. (11 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wordy <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: The supposed crash of a UFO in Roswell, New Mexico aroused interest in extraterrestrial life. This crash is rumored to have occurred in 1947. (24 words)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Concise <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: The supposed 1947 crash of a UFO in Roswell, New Mexico aroused interest in extraterrestrial life. (16 words)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Example: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> The above list of hypotheses might be rephrased concisely as: "The authors wanted to investigate whether marital conflict would predict behavior problems in children and they wanted to know if the effect was greater for girls than for boys, particularly when they examined two different age groups of girls."

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Balancing the need for clarity, which can require unpacking information, and the need for conciseness, which requires condensing information, is a challenge. Study published articles and reports in your field for examples of how to achieve this balance.

5.3 Word Choice
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">You should even be careful in selecting certain words or terms. Within the social sciences, commonly used words take on different meanings and can have a significant effect on how your readers interpret your reported findings or claims. To increase clarity, avoid bias, and control how your readers will receive your information, you should make certain substitutions:

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">As with the other stylistic suggestions here, you should study the discourse of your field to see what terminology is most often used.
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Use terms like "participants" or "respondents" (rather than "subjects") to indicate how individuals were involved in your research
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Use terms like "children" or "community members" to provide more detail about who was participating in the study
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Use phrases like "The evidence <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">suggests ..." or "Our study <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:      major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">indicates ..." rather than referring to "proof" or "proves" because no single study can prove a theory or hypothesis

6. APA Stylistics: Things to Avoid

 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Identifies the risk of bias in language concerning gender, race, disability, and sexuality when writing up research in APA fields
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Provides links to APA's official guidelines on avoiding bias
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Offers suggestions on finding alternatives to gendered pronouns and using different descriptors when identifying people in your research

6.1 Avoiding Poetic Language
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Writing papers in APA Style is unlike writing in more creative or literary styles that draw on poetic expressions and figurative language. Such linguistic devices can detract from conveying your information clearly and may come across to readers as forced when it is inappropriately used to explain an issue or your findings.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Therefore, you should:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">minimize the amount of figurative language used in an APA paper, such as metaphors and analogies unless they are helpful in conveying a complex idea
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">avoid rhyming schemes, alliteration, or other poetic devices typically found in verse
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">use simple, descriptive adjectives and plain language that does not risk confusing your meaning

6.2 Avoiding Bias
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Researchers who use APA often work with a variety of populations, some of whom tend to be stereotyped by the use of labels and other biased forms of language. Therefore, APA offers specific recommendations for eliminating bias in language concerning race, disability, and sexuality.

6.3 Make Adjustments to Labels
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Although you should avoid labeling whenever possible, it is sometimes difficult to accurately account for the identity of your research population or individual participants without using language that can be read as biased. Making adjustments in how you use identifiers and other linguistic categories can improve the clarity of your writing and minimize the likelihood of offending your readers.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">In general, you should call people what they prefer to be called, especially when dealing with race and ethnicity. But sometimes the common conventions of language inadvertently contain biases towards certain populations - e.g. using "normal" in contrast to someone identified as "disabled." Therefore, you should be aware of how your choice of terminology may come across to your reader, particularly if they identify with the population in question.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">You can find an in-depth discussion of this issue and specific recommendations for how to appropriately represent people in your text on the APA website on the following pages:


 * Removing Bias in Language: Disabilities<span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:     major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">
 * Removing Bias in Language: Race & Ethnicity
 * Removing Bias in Language: Sexuality

6.4 Avoid Gendered Pronouns
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">While you should always be clear about the sex identity of your participants (if you conducted an experiment), so that gender differences are obvious, you should not use gender terms when they aren't necessary. In other words, you should not use "he," "his" or "men" as generic terms applying to both sexes.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">APA does not recommend replacing "he" with "he or she," "she or he," "he/she," "(s)he," "s/he," or alternating between "he" and "she" because these substitutions are awkward and can distract the reader from the point you are trying to make. The pronouns "he" or "she" inevitably cause the reader to think of only that gender, which may not be what you intend.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">To avoid the bias of using gendered pronouns:

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">For more about addressing gender in academic writing, visit the OWL's handout on <span style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-theme-font:major-fareast; color:windowtext">non-sexist language<span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> use.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Rephrase the sentence
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Use plural nouns or plural pronouns - this way you can use "they" or "their"
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Replace the pronoun with an article - instead of "his," use "the"
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Drop the pronoun - many sentences sound fine if you just omit the troublesome "his" from the sentence
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Replace the pronoun with a noun such as "person," "individual," "child," "researcher," etc.

6.5 Find Alternative Descriptors
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">To avoid unintentional biases in your language, look to the parameters of your research itself. When writing up an experimental report, describe your participants by the measures you used to classify them in the experiment, as long as the labels are not offensive.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Example: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> If you had people take a test measuring their reaction times and you were interested in looking at the differences between people who had fast reaction times and those with slow reaction times, you could call the first group the "fast reaction time group" and the second the "slow reaction time group."

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Also, use adjectives to serve as descriptors rather than labels. When you use terms such as "the elderly" or "the amnesiacs," the people lose their individuality. One way to avoid this is to insert an adjective (e.g., "elderly people," "amnesic patients"). Another way is to mention the person first and follow this with a descriptive phrase (e.g., "people diagnosed with amnesia"), although it can be cumbersome to keep repeating phrases like this.

7. APA Citations and Reference List
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Perhaps the trickiest part to mastering APA Style is understanding the requirements for citing and listing secondary sources accurately. The following pages walk you through the details of writing citations and developing a reference page at the end of your paper. Read these guidelines carefully! It is important that you refer to your sources according to APA Style so your readers can quickly follow the citations to the reference page and then, from there, locate any sources that might be of interest to them. They will expect this information to be presented in a particular style, and any deviations from that style could result in confusing your readers about where you obtained your information.

7.1 In-Text Citations: The Basics
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Reference citations in text are covered on pages 169-179 of the Publication Manual. What follows are some general guidelines for referring to the works of others in your essay.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Addresses the basic formatting requirements of using the APA Style for citing secondary sources within the text of your essay
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Provides guidance on how to incorporate different kinds of references to borrowed material, from short quotes to summaries or paraphrases

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note: <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> APA style requires authors to use the past tense or present perfect tense when using signal phrases to describe earlier research, for example, Jones (1998) <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">found or Jones (1998) <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">has found ...

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, for example, (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If you are referring to an idea from another work but <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">NOT directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication and not the page number in your in-text reference. All sources that are cited in the text must appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

7.1.2 In-Text Citation Capitalization, Quotes, and Italics/Underlining
<p style="margin-left:.5in;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">(<span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note: in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new media.)
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";      mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Permanence and Change . Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: <span style="font-family:      "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Writing New Media, <span style="font-family:      "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">There Is Nothing Left to Lose.


 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word: <span style="font-family:      "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Natural-Born Cyborgs.
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock's <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Vertigo ."
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Italicize or underline the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, television series, documentaries, or albums: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";      mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">The Closing of the American Mind ; <span style="font-family:      "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">The Wizard of Oz ; <span style="font-family:      "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Friends.
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles: "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds"; "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."

7.1.2 Short Quotations
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199).

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers?

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.

7.1.3 Long Quotations
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Place direct quotations that are 40 words, or longer, in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the left margin, i.e., in the same place you would begin a new paragraph. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation 1/2 inch from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark.

<span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Jones's (1998) study found the following: Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students failed to  purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)

7.1.4 Summary or Paraphrase
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners. APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199).

7.2. In-Text Citations: Author/Authors
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">APA style has a series of important rules on using author names as part of the author-date system. There are additional rules for citing indirect sources, electronic sources, and sources without page numbers.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Focuses on various details about referring to the authors of your sources within your essay, which can be difficult to do efficiently if the source has more than one author or has an unclear author (e.g. an organization)
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Describes how to cite indirect quotes, electronic sources, and/or sources without page numbers

7.2.1 Citing an Author or Authors
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.2.1.1 A Work by Two Authors: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you cite the work. Use the word "and" between the authors' names within the text and use the ampersand in the parentheses. Research by Wegener and Petty (1994) supports... (Wegener & Petty, 1994)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.2.1.2 A Work by Three to Five Authors: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">List all the authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses the first time you cite the source. (Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993) In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al." in the signal phrase or in parentheses. (Kernis et al., 1993) In <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">et al., <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">et should not be followed by a period.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.2.1.3 Six or More Authors:

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">   Use the first author's name followed by et al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses. Harris et al. (2001) argued... (Harris et al., 2001)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.2.1.4 Unknown Author: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If the work does not have an author, cite the source by its title in the signal phrase or use the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and reports are italicized or underlined; titles of articles, chapters, and web pages are in quotation marks. A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers ("Using APA," 2001).

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: In the rare case the "Anonymous" is used for the author, treat it as the author's name (Anonymous, 2001). In the reference list, use the name Anonymous as the author.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.2.1.5 Organization as an Author: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If the author is an organization or a government agency, mention the organization in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source. According to the American Psychological Association (2000),...

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If the organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in brackets the first time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation in later citations. First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving [MADD], 2000)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Second citation: (MADD, 2000)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.2.1.6 Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">When your parenthetical citation includes two or more works, order them the same way they appear in the reference list, separated by a semi-colon. (Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.2.1.7 Authors with the Same Last Name: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">To prevent confusion, use first initials with the last names. (E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.2.1.8 Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If you have two sources by the same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year to order the entries in the reference list. Use the lower-case letters with the year in the in-text citation. Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that...

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.2.1.9 Introductions, Prefaces, Forewords, and Afterwords:

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">   When citing an Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterwords in-text, cite the appropriate author and year as usual. (Funk & Kolln, 1992)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.2.1.10 Personal Communication: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">For interviews, letters, e-mails, and other person-to-person communication, cite the communicator's name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the communication. Do not include personal communication in the reference list. (E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001). A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002).

7.3 Citing Indirect Sources
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If you use a source that was cited in another source, name the original source in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include the secondary source in the parentheses.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Johnson argued that...(as cited in Smith, 2003, p. 102).

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note: <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> When citing material in parentheses, set off the citation with a comma, as above. Also, try to locate the original material and cite the original source.

7.3.1 Electronic Sources
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If possible, cite an electronic document the same as any other document by using the author-date style.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Kenneth (2000) explained...

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">7.3.2 Unknown Author and Unknown Date: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If no author or date is given, use the title in your signal phrase or the first word or two of the title in the parentheses and use the abbreviation "n.d." (for "no date").

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Another study of students and research decisions discovered that students succeeded with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.).

7.3.3 Sources Without Page Numbers
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">When an electronic source lacks page numbers, you should try to include information that will help readers find the passage being cited. When an electronic document has numbered paragraphs, use the abbreviation "para." followed by the paragraph number (Hall, 2001, para. 5). If the paragraphs are not numbered and the document includes headings, provide the appropriate heading and specify the paragraph under that heading. Note that in some electronic sources, like Web pages, people can use the Find function in their browser to locate any passages you cite.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">According to Smith (1997), ... (Mind over Matter section, para. 6).

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note: <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> Never use the page numbers of Web pages you print out; different computers print Web pages with different pagination.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

7.4 Footnotes and Endnotes
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">APA does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes because they are often expensive for publishers to reproduce. However, if explanatory notes still prove necessary to your document, APA details the use of two types of footnotes: content and copyright.
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Recommends using footnotes or endnotes to avoid long explanations in the text
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Covers two basic kinds of notes: bibliographic and digressive

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">When using either type of footnote, insert a number formatted in superscript following almost any punctuation mark. Footnote numbers should not follow dashes ( — ), and if they appear in a sentence in parentheses, the footnote number should be inserted within the parentheses.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Scientists examined—over several years1—the fossilized remains of the wooly-wooly yak.2 (These have now been transferred to the Chauan Museum.3)

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">When using the footnote function in a word-processing program like Microsoft Word, place all footnotes at the bottom of the page on which they appear. Footnotes may also appear on the final page of your document (usually this is after the References page). Center the word “Footnotes” at the top of the page. Indent five spaces on the first line of each footnote. Then, follow normal paragraph spacing rules. Double-space throughout.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">1<span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> While the method of examination for the wooly-wooly yak provides important insights to this research, this document does not focus on this particular species.

7.4.1 Content Notes
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Content Notes provide supplemental information to your readers. When providing Content Notes, be brief and focus on only one subject. Try to limit your comments to one small paragraph.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Content Notes can also point readers to information that is available in more detail elsewhere.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">1<span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> See Blackmur (1995), especially chapters three and four, for an insightful analysis of this extraordinary animal.

7.4.2 Copyright Permission Notes
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If you quote more than 500 words of published material or think you may be in violation of “Fair Use” copyright laws, you must get the formal permission of the author(s). All other sources simply appear in the reference list.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Follow the same formatting rules as with Content Notes for noting copyright permissions. Then attach a copy of the permission letter to the document.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If you are reproducing a graphic, chart, or table, from some other source, you must provide a special note at the bottom of the item that includes copyright information. You should also submit written permission along with your work. Begin the citation with “<span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note .”

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">. From “Title of the article,” by W. Jones and R. Smith, 2007, Journal Title, 21, p. 122. Copyright 2007 by Copyright Holder. Reprinted with permission.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:.25in;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

7.5 Reference List: Basic Rules
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Guides you through the general rules that apply to any reference list developed using APA Style
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Covers everything from where the reference list appears to the capitalization of words in the titles of sources
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Serves as a primer on formatting that will be followed in all of the following handouts on creating APA reference entries

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page "References" centered at the top of the page (do NOT bold, underline, or use quotation marks for the title). All text should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.

Basic Rules

 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Authors' names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all authors of a particular work for up to and including seven authors. If the work has more than seven authors, list the first six authors and then use ellipses after the sixth author's name. After the ellipses, list the last author's name of the work.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">For multiple articles by the same author, or authors listed in the same order, list the entries in chronological order, from earliest to most recent.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Present the journal title in full.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Maintain the punctuation and capitalization that is used by the journal in its title.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:.25in;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">
 * <span style="font-size:      12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;       mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">For example: <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;       mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">ReCALL not <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;       mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">RECALL  or <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;       mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Knowledge Management Research & Practice not <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";       mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Knowledge Management Research and Practice.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Capitalize all major words in journal titles.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">When referring to books, chapters, articles, or Web pages, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles or essays in edited collections.
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:     major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Please note: <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:      major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> While the APA manual provides many examples of how to cite common types of sources, it does not provide rules on how to cite all types of sources. Therefore, if you have a source that APA does not include, APA suggests that you find the example that is most similar to your source and use that format. For more information, see page 193 of the <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";      mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, sixth edition.

7.6 Reference List: Author/Authors

 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Walks you through how to construct a reference entry for different text starting with a focus on author
 * <span style="font-size:12.0pt;     font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:      major-latin">Notes how the references are different depending on the number of authors or if there are multiple works by the same author

7.6.1 Reference List: Author/Authors
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">The following rules for handling works by a single author or multiple authors apply to all APA-style references in your reference list, regardless of the type of work (book, article, electronic resource, etc.)

7.6.2 Single Author
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Last name first, followed by author initials.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10.

7.6.3 Two Authors
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of "and."

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.

7.6.4 Three to Seven Authors
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by ampersand.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., Harlow, T., & Bach, J. S. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.

7.6.5 More Than Seven Authors
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">List by last names and initials; commas separate author names. After the sixth author's name, use an ellipses in place of the author names. Then provide the final author name. There should be no more than seven names.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Miller, F. H., Choi, M. J., Angeli, L. L., Harland, A. A., Stamos, J. A., Thomas, S. T.,. . . Rubin, L. H. (2009). Web site usability for the blind and low-vision user. <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Technical Communication, 57, 323-335.

7.6.6 Organization as Author
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">American Psychological Association. (2003).

7.6.7 Unknown Author
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">(10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">NOTE <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: When your essay includes parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the source's title instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics as appropriate. For example, parenthetical citations of the source above would appear as follows: (<span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Merriam-Webster's, 1993).

7.6.8 Two or More Works by the Same Author
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Use the author's name for all entries and list the entries by the year (earliest comes first).

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Berndt, T. J. (1981).

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Berndt, T. J. (1999).

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">When an author appears both as a sole author and, in another citation, as the first author of a group, list the one-author entries first.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends' influence on students' adjustment to school. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Educational Psychologist, 34, 15-28.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence on adolescents' adjustment to school. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Child Development, 66, 1312-1329.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">References that have the same first author and different second and/or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, or the last name of the third if the first and second authors are the same.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wegener, D. T., Kerr, N. L., Fleming, M. A., & Petty, R. E. (2000). Flexible corrections of juror judgments: Implications for jury instructions. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 6, 629-654.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Klein, D. J. (1994). Effects of mood on high elaboration attitude change: The mediating role of likelihood judgments. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 25-43.

7.6.9 Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">If you are using more than one reference by the same author (or the same group of authors listed in the same order) published in the same year, organize them in the reference list alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year. Refer to these sources in your essay as they appear in your reference list, e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a) makes similar claims..."

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in prosocial intentions and behavior between friends. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Developmental Psychology, 17, 408-416.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on prosocial intentions and behavior. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Child Development, 52, 636-643.

7.6.10 Introductions, Prefaces, Forewords, and Afterwords
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Cite the publishing information about a book as usual, but cite Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterword (whatever title is applicable) as the chapter of the book.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Funk, R., & Kolln, M. (1998). Introduction. In E. W. Ludlow (Ed.), <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Understanding English grammar (pp. 1-2). Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:.25in;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

7.7 Reference List: Articles in Periodicals

 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Builds from the previous handout by looking specifically at how to refer accurately to a periodical source
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Lists types of entries depending on the kind of journal (e.g. one paginated by volume), if the source is a magazine v. a newspaper, or the kind of article the source is (e.g. a letter to the editor)

Basic Form
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">APA style dictates that authors are named last name followed by initials; publication year goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Title of Periodical, volume number (issue number), pages.

7.1 Article in Journal Paginated by Volume
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Journals that are paginated by volume begin with page one in issue one, and continue numbering issue two where issue one ended, etc.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.

7.2 Article in Journal Paginated by Issue
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Journals paginated by issue begin with page one every issue; therefore, the issue number gets indicated in parentheses after the volume. The parentheses and issue number are not italicized or underlined.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">The New Criterion, 15 (30), 5-13.

7.3 Article in a Magazine
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Time, 135, 28-31.

7.4 Article in a Newspaper
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style. Single pages take p., e.g., p. B2; multiple pages take pp., e.g., pp. B2, B4 or pp. C1, C3-C4.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen state energy policies. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">The Country Today, pp. 1A, 2A.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: Because of issues with html coding, the listings below using brackets contain spaces that are not to be used with your listings. Use a space as normal before the brackets, but do not include a space following the bracket.

7.5 Letter to the Editor
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Moller, G. (2002, August). Ripples versus rumbles [Letter to the editor]. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Scientific American, 287 (2), 12.

7.6 Review
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth [Review of the book <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">The self-knower: A hero under control, by R. A. Wicklund & M. Eckert]. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Contemporary Psychology, 38, 466-467.

8. Reference List: Books

 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Builds from the author handout by describing how to properly refer to book-length sources
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Addresses both the basic format as well as requirements for those unique book sources that require you to note specific details, such as whether it is a translation or part of a multivolume work

8.1 Basic Format for Books
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Author, A. A. (Year of publication). <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: For "Location," you should always list the city and the state using the two letter postal abbreviation without periods (New York, NY).

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

8.2 Edited Book, No Author
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Consequences of growing up poor. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

8.3 Edited Book with an Author or Authors
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Plath, S. (2000). <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">The unabridged journals. K. V. Kukil (Ed.). New York, NY: Anchor.

8.4 A Translation
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Laplace, P. S. (1951). <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">A philosophical essay on probabilities. (F. W. Truscott & F. L. Emory, Trans.). New York, NY: Dover. (Original work published 1814).

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: When you cite a republished work, like the one above, in your text, it should appear with both dates: Laplace (1814/1951).

8.5Edition Other Than the First
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Helfer, M. E., Kempe, R. S., & Krugman, R. D. (1997). <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">The battered child (5th ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

8.6 Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Note <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">: When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references, except for newspapers.

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: A metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York, NY: Springer.

8.7 Multivolume Work
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York, NY: Scribner's.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:.25in;text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">

9. Reference List: Other Print Sources

 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Offers a short list of other less common print sources you might be citing in your manuscript and how to construct references for them
 * <span style="font-size:     12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;      mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Covers examples such as citing a source that is cited in another, or citing a government document

9.1 An Entry in an Encyclopedia
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">The New Encyclopedia  Britannica. (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago, IL: Encyclopedia Britannica.

9.2 Work Discussed in a Secondary Source
<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">List the source the work was discussed in:

<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Psychological Review, 100, 589-608.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">NOTE: <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> Give the secondary source in the references list; in the text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Seidenberg and McClelland's work is cited in Coltheart et al. and you did not read the original work, list the Coltheart et al. reference in the References. In the text, use the following citation:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">In Seidenberg and McClelland's study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller, 1993), ...

9.3 Dissertation Abstract
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Yoshida, Y. (2001). Essays in urban transportation. <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Dissertation Abstracts International, 62, 7741A.

9.4 Dissertation, Published
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Lastname, F. N. (Year). <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Title of dissertation. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Name of database. (Accession or Order Number)

9.5 Dissertation, Unpublished
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Lastname, F. N. (Year). <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Title of dissertation. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Name of Institution, Location.

9.6 Government Document
<p class="citation" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">For information about citing legal sources in your reference list, see the <span style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font:major-fareast;color:windowtext">Westfield State College page on Citing Legal Materials in APA Style<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:18.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:18.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:18.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:18.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">  

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:18.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">References 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Displaying Your Findings: A Practical Guide for Creating Figures, Posters, and Presentations <span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> (ISBN: 1433807076X)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Gelfand, H., Walker, C.J., & APA. (2002). Mastering APA Style: Student’s Workbook and Training Guide. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Kristen Seas, Allen Brizee, The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th edition), 2012-07-03 05:47:29

<p style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Mastering APA Style: Instructor's Resource Guide <span style="font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin"> (ISBN: 1557988900)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">Presenting Your Findings: A Practical Guide for Creating Tables <span style="font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font:major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin"> (ISBN: 143380705X)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height:normal"><span style="font-size:18.0pt;font-family:"Cambria","serif";mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin;mso-hansi-theme-font:major-latin">  

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